Assignment 8

Assessing and Teaching Reading

The Expanding Research Base in Reading

The National Research Council (NRC), a group of experts convened to examine reading research and address the serious national problem of reading failure, concluded in their landmark report Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998) that most reading problems can be prevented by providing effective instruction and intervention in preschool and in the primary grades. The NRC noted that for students to learn to read well they must a) understand how sounds are represented by print and be able to apply this understanding to read and spell words, b) practice reading enough to become fluent readers, c) learn new vocabulary words, and d) learn to self-monitor when reading to make sure what they read makes sense and to correct their own errors. The NRC also found that it was important that teachers provide explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics integrated with many opportunities to read and write meaningful, connected text. (They purposefully used the word integrated rather than balanced. It isn't enough simply to add on components of a fragmented curriculum to balance one with another.) Finally, they noted that effective reading teachers adapt their instruction, making changes designed to meet the needs of different students.

The evidence to date shows that there are five overriding research-supported characteristics of effective instruction for students with reading difficulties.

1. Teach essential skills and strategies.

◊ Effective reading teachers teach skills, strategies, and concepts.

2. Provide differentiated instruction based on assessment results and adapt instruction to meet students' needs.

◊ Effective teachers recognize that one size doesn't fit all and are ready to adapt instruction—both content and methods.

3. Provide explicit and systematic instruction with lots of practice—with and without teacher support and feedback, including cumulative practice over time.

◊ Students should not have to infer what they are supposed to learn.

4. Provide opportunities to apply skills and strategies in reading and writing meaningful text with teacher support.

◊ Students need to be taught what to do when they get to a "hard word."

5. Don't just "cover" critical content; be sure students learn it—monitor student progress regularly and reteach as necessary.

◊ Effective teachers adjust their teaching accordingly to try to accelerate student progress.

Differentiating Instruction: Once Size Doesn't Fit All

Meeting the needs of diverse readers is no small task. In a typical 3rd grade classroom, there may be virtual nonreaders, typically developing readers, and students who read at 5th or 6th grade levels or even higher. Many classrooms in which all instruction is delivered in English include students who are learning to read and speak in English at the same time. A single classroom may include children who speak several different languages at home. Teachers address these various needs by providingdifferentiated instruction, using the results of diagnostic assessments to help them identify students' strengths and needs, forming small groups of students with similar needs, and then planning instruction to target those needs. Typically, this means that teachers implement reading instruction in small groups as well as in whole class formats.

Although a quality reading curriculum will provide the foundation for effective instruction, teachers will need to adapt their instruction for students who struggle (and for high-achieving students as well). Quality classroom reading instruction can be adapted for students who find it difficult to learn to read by a) teaching the specific skills and strategies that students need to learn, based on assessment data (sometimes called 0); b) making instruction more explicit and systematic; c) increasing opportunities for practice; d) providing appropriate text at students' instructional reading levels (not too easy but not too hard); and e) monitoring students' mastery of key skills and strategies and reteaching when necessary.

Components of Reading Instruction

There are 5 components to Reading Instruction.

1. Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is the knowledge that words are made up of a combination of individual sounds. For example, the word cat is made up of three sounds (phonemes) /c/ /a/ and /t/. When these three sounds are combined fluidly, they make up the word cat. If a child knows that cat, car, and caboose all have the same sound at the beginning of the word, she has phonemic awareness. In other words, she is aware that the /c/ sound (phoneme) begins each of those three words. Phonemic awareness is more than recognizing sounds. It also includes the ability to hold on to those sounds, blend them successfully into words, and take them apart again. For example, in addition to the knowledge that the word cat has three separate sounds, phonemic awareness is the ability to blend these three sounds together to form the word cat and, when asked, to identify and separate the sounds within the word. Do all children need instruction in phonemic awareness? Some children have a good sense of phonemic awareness, but to differing degrees. It is important to determine the child’s level before beginning instruction. While all reading programs should devote some time to phonemic instruction, phonemic awareness is usually acquired naturally through exposure to print. The NRP found that during the kindergarten year, 18 hours total of phonemic awareness instruction — just 30 minutes a week, six minutes a day — provided maximum advantage.

2. Phonics

Phonics is the relationship between a specific letter and its sound, only as it relates to the written word. Phonics is used, for example, when a reader comes across an unknown word. With knowledge of phonics, he can try to read the word by focusing on the specific sound of each letter or combination of letters. For example, if a child does not recognize the word chant, he might break the word apart into pieces, such as /ch/ /a/ /n/ /t/ (or /ch/ /a/ /nt/, or /ch/ /ant/), assigning an appropriate sound to each separate letter or combination of letters. Then, the child combines those sounds to create the word chant. LEARNS Page 2 Phonics is also used in writing, or encoding text. For instance, if a child is trying to spell smart, she might begin with the /s/ sound and write s. Then, she goes to the next sound /m/ and writes m, and so on. An early phonics learner often achieves a close approximation of correct spelling rather than complete accuracy. For example, she may attempt to spell the word smart using the method above but end up with smrt, simply because she only heard the dominant /r/ sound in the /ar/ sound-letter combination.

3. Fluency

Fluency is the ability to read text accurately and smoothly. When fluent readers read aloud, their expression, intonation, and pacing sound natural — much like speaking. This does not mean that fluent readers never make mistakes. Fluency develops from reading practice. The same reader may read a familiar text fluently and a new, more challenging text less fluently.

Why is fluency important? Since fluency depends on higher word recognition skills, it helps children move from decoding words to sight-reading. This means that less energy is spent on deciphering each word and more is spent on comprehending what is read. If children are struggling to decode individual words, they cannot concentrate on other strategies that support their overall understanding of what they read.

How does fluency increase? Practice, practice, practice. Repeated oral reading is the best way for children to improve their fluency. This can include re-reading a familiar text several times, listening to models of fluent reading, or engaging in choral, or unison reading with a big book. Choose books that children can read with a high degree of success. If the book is too difficult, children will be bogged down with vocabulary and comprehension questions and their fluency will be hindered.

4. Vocabulary

What role does vocabulary play in learning to read? When children learn to read, they begin to understand that the words on the page correspond to the words they encounter every day in spoken English. That’s why it’s much easier for children to make sense of written words that are already part of their oral language. While we don’t have to know every word on the page to understand what we are reading, too many new or difficult words make comprehension impossible. As children’s reading level improves, so does the number of words they need to know.

How do children learn new words? Children increase their vocabulary through both direct and indirect instruction. Children continually learn new words indirectly through listening and speaking to the people around them, being read to by others, and reading on their own. Sometimes children need to be taught new words explicitly, especially when they are crucial to their understanding of a story or concept. Study in content areas, such as science and social studies, adds to a child’s vocabulary development.

5. Text Comprehension

Text comprehension is the interaction that happens between reader and text. More than merely decoding words on a page, comprehension is the intentional thinking process that occurs as we read — it’s what reading is all about!

What strategies support comprehension? Good readers are purposeful and active. They use a wide variety of strategies, often simultaneously, to create meaning from text. Some of the most important are:

Monitoring comprehension: Successful readers know when they understand a passage and when they don’t. When they don’t understand, they know to pause and utilize strategies to improve their understanding. •
Using prior knowledge: Thinking about what is already known about the subject helps readers make connections between the story and their knowledge.
Making predictions: Good readers often make predictions as they read through a story, using both the knowledge they bring to a text as well as what they can derive from the text.
Questioning: When children ask questions about what they read and subsequently search for answers, they are interacting with the text to construct meaning. Good questions are based on a child’s knowledge base and what further information she desires.
Recognizing story structure: Children will understand a story better if they understand how it is organized (i.e., setting, plot, characters, and themes).
Summarizing: When they summarize a story, readers determine the main idea and important information and use their own words to demonstrate a real understanding of the text.

Components of Evidence-Based Reading Instruction

1. Objectivity:

Data identified and interpreted similary by any evaluator- the evaluator would be the teacher using an instruction method or material.

2. Validity:

Are the students taking a valid test to test knowledge of content being taught? This can be difficult when testing students with reading difficulties or disabilities so it is important to know what test is valid for them.

3. Reliability:

Is the test long enough? Is it a speed test (time test)? Are the test questions difficult enough to test knowledge of content? Is the test objective? Are there actions that can cause distraction during the test?

4. Systematic Data Collection:

Are the test scores collected giving the student an accurate grade for knowledge of content being tested on?

5. Refereed:

As special education teachers work with students in need of services and possible programs to assist with their particular, a teacher may in some cases "refer" the student to another school, teacher, or program.

Core Reading Programs

1. Basal Reading Approach:

It is designed to develop phonemics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. It can also be called Reading Mastery.

2. Literature-Based Reading Approach:

Students can choose what books they want to read, based on reading level. It keeps the student interested in Reading. I have had to do this many times with my student who has dyslexia. If it is something he is interested in he can read it fantastic, but any other reading I would like him to do he does not comprehend it.

3. Whole Language Appproach:

Teaching students to read by recognizing words as whole pieces of language.

4. Language Experience Approach:

A program to help students with vocabulary, language patterns, and creating text based on previous experiences. 1: A shared experience. 2: Creating the Text. 3: Read and Revise. 4: Read and Reread.

5. Phonics Approach:

This helps students concetrate on print, purpose, and labeling. The process of decoding single letters helps the students blend sounds to make words. Fluency, accuracy, and speed requires memorization and reptition.

Remedial Reading Programs and Methods

Reading Mastery and Corrective Reading

Reading Mastery is a complete basal reading program that uses the Direct Instruction method to help students master essential decoding and comprehension skills. The program places particular emphasis on teaching thinking skills and helping students acquire background knowledge. Program materials include fully scripted lessons to guide teachers through carefully constructed instructional steps - modeling new content, providing guided practice, offering individualized practice and applying skills. It also utilizes a special orthography designed to assist students identify letter sounds. The special font is later phased out and replaced with traditional orthography. Signals and group responses are used to keep students involved, help them stay on task and help with lesson pacing. Teachers assess student performance throughout the program, and struggling students receive practice through remedial exercises. Each level of the program typically spans one academic year.

Success for All

SFAF's elementary programs combine a cooperative-learning framework with detailed lessons that guide effective instruction in critical academic and social skills. Lessons incorporate multimedia, puppet skits, and videos to support classroom instruction and keep students engaged. This helps students with reading difficulties because if the student is more engaged they are more likely to comprehend what they are reading.

Reading Recovery

It is a school-based, short-term intervention designed for children aged five or six, who are the lowest achieving in literacy after their first year of school. For instance, a child who is unable to read the simplest of books or write their own name, after a year in school, would be appropriate for a referral to a Reading Recovery program. The intervention involves intensive one-to-one lessons for 30 minutes a day with a trained literacy teacher, for between 12 and 20 weeks. This really helps students who struggle to read because it was specifically designed for those readers.

Multisensory Reading Method

The Multisensory teaching approach to reading, is based upon the idea that some students learn best when the material that they are given is presented to them in a variety of modalities. This method uses movement (kinesthetic) and touch (tactile), along with what we see (visual) and what we hear (auditory) to help students learn to read, write and spell. All students can benefit from multisensory learning, not just special education students.Every child processes information differently, and this teaching method allows for each child to use a variety of their senses to understand and process information. Teacher's that provide classroom activities that utilize various senses, will notice that their students learning attention will increase, and it will make for an optimal learning environment.

Oral Reading Fluency Methods

Fluent readers are able to read orally with speed, accuracy, and proper expression. Fluency is one of several critical factors necessary for reading comprehension. This helps struggling readers because they are reading it out loud and someone can be there to help them with words along with comprehension.

Peer-Assisted Reading Method

It is a class wide peer-tutoring program that helps every student. I like this method because students are working in pairs and I have always found that what one student doesn't know the other might so they work together to figure out the answer.

Keyword Method

The Keyword Method is an effective system for remembering definitions, learning foreign language vocabulary, and more. Any two pieces of information can be linked together in your memory using this method. This might be a good method for students who are struggling if this is the particular way that they learn. Some students learn best by rote memorization, but others not so much.

Reciprocal Teaching

Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity in which students become the teacherin small group reading sessions. Teachersmodel, then help students learn to guide group discussions using four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. This method would help students with reading difficulties because they would be hearing instruction from someone other than the teacher. It is important for students to hear the lesson in many different ways because one way might not work best for them.

Mapping Strategies

There are many different mapping strategies to help students understand what they are reading. I always use graphic organizeres with my students so they are comparing and contrasting throughout the story or learning cause and effect situations. There is a different method with each unit.

High Interest—Low Vocabulary Method

This method appeals the interest level of the student but uses low vocabulary terms. This is a good method for students who do not have a strong vocabulary. If a student does not understand what he/she is reading then they cannot comprehend what they are reading.

Life Skills Reading

This is the reading where students read about life lessons. I think that this is important in any classroom because it can in a way be cross-curricular. It is important to be teaching students life lessons through reading so they are being taught to grow up in a way.

Reading Activities

Prereading Activities: Concepts About Print

Understanding print involves recognizing and understanding the mechanics of text. A reader must understand that text contains a message; that it flows from left to right and from top to bottom; that individual words on the page correspond to individual spoken words, and so on. Written English has a structure, and understanding that structure is prerequisite to good decoding skills.

Prereading Activities: Phonological Awareness

Activities that develop phonological awareness in children provide practice with rhyme and with beginning sounds and syllables.

Word-Attack Activities

Word-attack strategies help students decode, pronounce, and understand unfamiliar words. They help students attack words piece by piece or from a different angle. Model and instruct students:

Use Picture Clues

Look at the picture.
Are there people, objects, or actions in the picture that might make sense in the sentence?

Sound Out the Word

Start with the first letter, and say each letter-sound out loud.
Blend the sounds together and try to say the word. Does the word make sense in the sentence?

Look for Chunks in the Word

Look for familiar letter chunks. They may be sound/symbols, prefixes, suffixes, endings, whole words, or base words.
Read each chunk by itself. Then blend the chunks together and sound out the word. Does that word make sense in the sentence?

Connect to a Word You Know

Think of a word that looks like the unfamiliar word.
Compare the familiar word to the unfamiliar word. Decide if the familiar word is a chunk or form of the unfamiliar word.
Use the known word in the sentence to see if it makes sense. If so, the meanings of the two words are close enough for understanding.

Reread the Sentence

Read the sentence more than once.
Think about what word might make sense in the sentence. Try the word and see if the sentence makes sense.

Keep Reading

Read past the unfamiliar word and look for clues.
If the word is repeated, compare the second sentence to the first. What word might make sense in both?

Use Prior Knowledge

Think about what you know about the subject of the book, paragraph, or sentence.
Do you know anything that might make sense in the sentence? Read the sentence with the word to see if it makes sense.

Fluency Activities

The following website page has a lot of fluency activities for students with dyslexia grades 1-7. I use them with my student who has dyslexia. http://www.readingresource.net/readingfluencyactivities.html

Vocabulary Activities

Vocabulary activities help your child learn new words through games and crafts! Your child will enjoy being a word detective in these games, as he finds new vocabulary in books, in word scrambles, and in muffin tins.

Comprehension Activities

Reading comprehension activities encourage your child to recall and analyze what he's read and have fun in the process. Practicing reading comprehension allows children to read with better fluency and learn more from what they read.

EK